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Institute of medicine (US) Committee to testimonial Dietary referral Intakes because that Vitamin D and Calcium; Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, et al., editors. Dietary referral Intakes because that Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington (DC): national Academies press (US); 2011.
Institute of medication (US) Committee to review Dietary reference Intakes because that Vitamin D and Calcium; Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, et al., editors.
INTRODUCTION
Vitamin D, very first identified together a vitamin at an early stage in the 20th century, is now well-known as a prohormone. A unique facet of vitamin D as a nutrient is the it deserve to be synthesized through the human being body v the activity of sunlight. These double sources the vitamin D do it complicated to construct dietary reference intake values.
Vitamin D, likewise known as calciferol, comprises a team of fat-soluble seco-sterols. The two significant forms space vitamin D2 and also vitamin D3. Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) is mainly human-made and added to foods, whereas vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is synthesized in the skin of people from 7-dehydrocholesterol and also is likewise consumed in the diet via the intake of animal-based foods. Both vitamin D3 and vitamin D2 are synthesized commercially and also found in dietary supplements or fortified foods. The D2 and D3 develops differ just in your side chain structure. The differences do not affect metabolism (i.e., activation), and also both forms duty as prohormones. Once activated, the D2 and also D3 forms have been reported come exhibit identical responses in the body, and the potency related to the capability to healing vitamin D–deficiency rickets is the very same (Fieser and Fieser, 1959; Jones et al., 1998; Jurutka et al., 2001). Experimental animal studies have indicated that vitamin D2 is less toxic than vitamin D3, yet this has actually not to be demonstrated in humans.
The activation steps associated in converting vitamin D from the diet and also cutaneous synthetic are portrayed in number 3-1. Vitamin D, in one of two people the D2 or D3 form, is taken into consideration biologically inactive till it undergoes two enzymatic hydroxylation reactions. The first takes location in the liver, mediated through the 25-hydroxylase (most most likely cytochrome P450 2R1
The renal synthesis of calcitriol is tightly regulation by 2 counter-acting hormones, with up-regulation via parathyroid hormone (PTH) and also down-regulation via fibroblast-like growth factor-23 (FGF23) (Galitzer et al., 2008; Bergwitz and also Juppner, 2010). Low serum phosphorus levels stimulate calcitriol synthesis, conversely, high serum phosphorus level inhibit it. Complying with its synthetic in the kidney, calcitriol binding to DBP to it is in transported come target organs. The biological actions the calcitriol, indicate regulation that gene expression at the transcriptional level, and are mediated v binding come a vitamin D receptor (VDR), situated primarily in the nuclei the target cells (Jones et al., 1998; Jurutka et al., 2001). Extr hydroxylation reactions, such together that mediated by CYP24A1, as shown in number 3-1, an outcome in much more polar metabolites with greatly lessened or no apparent biological activity.
The classical actions that vitamin D—which by itself is inactive—are due to the functions of the energetic metabolite, calcitriol. This actions take the type of the regulation the serum calcium and phosphate homeostasis and, in turn, the advancement and maintenance of bone wellness (DeLuca, 1988; Reichel et al., 1989; Jones et al., 1998). Non-classical features are less well elucidated. VDRs are found relatively ubiquitously transparent the body in organization not associated with calcium and phosphate homeostasis, and the visibility of VDRs in this tissues indicates that calcitriol may play a more general role or that ligands various other than calcitriol deserve to activate the VDR. Furthermore, the specific vitamin D–responsive aspects (VDREs), considered the hallmark the vitamin D action, are existing in a large number of human being genes connected in a wide range of classical and also non-classical roles, such as the regulation of cell proliferation, cell differentiation, and apoptosis. It has been argued that calcitriol exerts immunomodulatory and anti-proliferative results through autocrine and paracrine pathways (Adams and also Hewison, 2008). This wide-ranging plot of calcitriol have more been hypothesized come play a potential function in preventive or therapeutic activity in cancer (Masuda and Jones, 2006) and also chronic conditions such as auto-immune problems (including type 1 diabetes), cardiovascular disease, and also infections (Holick et al., 2007).
Outside that the biological forms the vitamin D, a number of analogues based upon the vitamin D structure have actually been synthesized for use as potential pharmacological agents. These space not, however, dietary or biosynthesized compounds; rather, they are designed for certain applications in research study or clinical treatment. Examples of man-made analogues that have obtained importance in clinical medicine are briefly mentioned below.
The ax vitamin D is normally used in this report to refer to both the D2 and D3 forms and their metabolites, back the two develops are differentiated when essential for clarification (see box 3-1 because that definitions). Vitamin D level in the diet—from foods and supplements—are expressed in global Units (IU), but may it is in expressed somewhere else in micrograms (μg). The biological task of 1 μg the vitamin D is indistinguishable to 40 IU. Owing to the frequency v which serum 25OHD levels are had in this report text, the levels space expressed only as nanomoles every liter (nmol/L). As shown in box 3-1, the nanomoles per liter measure deserve to be converted to nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL) by dividing by a aspect of 2.5.
BOX 3-1
Terms and Conversions provided in referral to Vitamin D. Vitamin D—also described as calciferol Vitamin D2—also described as ergocalciferol
Diet
The dietary resources of vitamin D incorporate food and dietary supplements; therefore, “total vitamin D intake” reflects the linked dietary contribution from foods and also supplements. There are a few naturally developing food resources of vitamin D. These incorporate fatty fish, fish liver oil, and also egg yolk. Some foodstuffs are, however, strengthened with vitamin D. After ~ vitamin D was recognized as necessary for the avoidance of rickets in the 1920s (Steenbock and also Black, 1924), vitamin D fortification that some foods was initiated ~ above a voluntarily basis.
In the unified States, liquid milk is voluntarily fortified with 400 IU every quart (or 385 IU/L) the vitamin D (U.S. Regulations carry out not specify the form) (FDA, 2009). In Canada, under the Food and also Drug Regulation,1 fortification of fluid milk and also margarine through vitamin D is mandatory. Liquid milk need to contain 35–45 IU vitamin D per 100 mL and margarine, 530 IU every 100 g. In addition, strengthened plant-based beverages must contain vitamin D in one amount tantamount to liquid milk. In analyses carried out in the 1980s and also early 1990s, a far-ranging portion of milk samples in the United claims were uncovered to contain less than the stated amount of vitamin D (Tanner et al., 1988). Holick et al. (1992) uncovered that 62 percent of milk sampled from 5 eastern states consisted of less than 80 percent and also 10 percent contained much more than 120 percent the the lot of vitamin D proclaimed on the label. Chen et al. (1993) reported comparable findings. A more recent report ~ above vitamin D–fortified milk sampled in brand-new York State over a period of 4 years showed that an median of only 47.7 percent that samples dropped within the variety of acceptable levels of vitamin D fortification (Murphy et al., 2001). However, recent surveys from the U.S. Department of farming (USDA) show that these problems have to be corrected. In a presentation to this committee, Byrdwell (2009) reported that a USDA inspection of milk samples taken in 2007 native 24 locations throughout the joined States verified that most samples had actually vitamin D levels within the variety of 400 come 600 IU/quart.
In Canada, Faulkner et al. (2000) surveyed milk samples and also found the 20 percent that skim milk, 40 percent of 2 percent fat milk, and 20 percent of whole milk, contained the encourage level the vitamin D. Samples accumulated by the Canadian Food Inspection company from 1999 with 2009 and analyzed because that vitamin D indicated that throughout the last 4 years of sample collection, 47 come 69 percent to be within the variety specified by regulation (personal communication, S. Brooks, health and wellness Canada, April 30, 2022). In addition, end the past 5 years, the mean vitamin D contents of analyzed milk samples dropped within this range. Over time, manufacturers in the United states have included vitamin D to various other foods, and the food sector is increasingly marketing foodstuffs fortified v vitamin D (Yetley, 2008). Based on data indigenous a U.S. Food and also Drug management (FDA) inspection that provides information top top the labels of processed, packaged food commodities in the united States, Yetley (2008) reported that nearly all liquid milks, around 75 percent the ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, slightly an ext than fifty percent of every milk substitutes, about one-quarter of yogurts, and approximately 8 to 14 percent of cheeses, juices, and also spreads are strengthened with vitamin D in the U.S. Market. Many product labels consisted of in the survey indicated that the form of included vitamin D was vitamin D3. However, some milk substitutes are fortified with vitamin D2 grain labels did not specify the type of added vitamin D. Level of vitamin D ranged from 40 IU per regulatory serving because that cereals and also cheeses come 60 IU every regulatory serving because that spreads and 100 IU every regulatory serving for fluid milk. Number of food categories had actually within-category varieties of 40 to 100 IU that vitamin D per regulatory serving. Serum vitamin D and 25OHD have low penetrance into breast milk, together consisting of 40 to 50 IU the antirachitic task per liter, most of which is contributed by 25OHD (Leerbeck and also Sondergaard, 1980; Hollis et al., 1981; Reeve et al., 1982; Specker et al., 1985). Data indigenous the USDA report the vitamin D contents of human milk to it is in 4.3 IU/100 kcal.2 However, the vitamin D biological task may be greater than the analyzed values, due to the fact that human milk contains small amounts of 25OHD in addition to vitamin D3 (Reeve et al., 1982); further, the biological task of 25OHD is approximately 50 percent higher than the of vitamin D (Blunt et al., 1968).
The FDA has created that child formula need to contain 40 come 100 IU of vitamin D every 100 kcal.3 Commercial child formulas contain around 60 IU of vitamin D per 100 kcal, as estimated by the USDA food ingredient database,4 and Yetley (2008) reported that commercial milk-based infant formulas gathered between 2003 and 2006 included 87 come 184 percent of label declarations. In Canada, infant formula is forced by regulation come contain between 40 and also 80 IU the vitamin D per 100 kcal.
In recent years, diet supplements include vitamin D have become much more common and have been an ext frequently consumed. The form of vitamin D supplied in supplement assets can be either vitamin D2 or vitamin D3. It would appear from informal observations of the sector place that manufacturers are significantly switching from vitamin D2 come vitamin D3, and some are enhancing the vitamin D contents of your products. Traditionally, many marketed diet supplements have included 400 IU per day-to-day dose, however levels in supplements have actually been increasing. In the united States, vitamin D can now be uncovered in multi-vitamin/multi-mineral formulations and also a single supplement in a selection of dosage levels, consisting of 1,000 come 5,000 IU that vitamin D3 per dose and even up to 50,000 IU of vitamin D2 every dose. In Canada, dosage levels of vitamin D above 1,000 IU are obtainable only with a prescription.
Information around current nationwide survey approximates of the intake of vitamin D indigenous foods and supplements have the right to be uncovered in thing 7.
Synthesis in the Skin
Vitamin D3 is synthesized in human being skin indigenous 7-dehydrocholesterol adhering to exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation v wavelength 290 to 320 nm.5 The procedure of UVB-mediated switch of 7-dehydrocholesterol to the previtamin D3 kind and succeeding thermal isomerization to vitamin D3 emerging in the epidermis is shown in figure 3-2.
FIGURE 3-2
Photochemical events that bring about the production and regulation the vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) in the skin. NOTE: DBP = vitamin D binding protein. SOURCE: Holick (1994). Reprinted through permission native the American journal of Clinical Nutrition (1994, (more...)
The production of vitamin D3 in skin is a role of the lot of UVB radiation reaching the dermis and the access of 7-dehydrocholesterol (Holick, 1995). As such, the level of synthesis is affected by a variety of factors, together described below in the section entitled “Measures connected with Vitamin D: Serum 25OHD,” including season the the year, skin pigmentation, latitude, usage of sunscreen, clothing, and amount that skin exposed. Period is likewise a factor, in that synthesis of vitamin D decreases with increasing age, early out in part to a fall in 7-dehydrocholesterol levels and also due in component to alterations in skin morphology (MacLaughlin and Holick, 1985).
Toxic level of vitamin D perform not occur from prolonged sun exposure. Heat activation of previtamin D3 in the skin gives rise to multiple non–vitamin D forms, such together lumisterol, tachysterol and also others (Holick et al., 1981; Webb et al., 1989), as shown in figure 3-2; this borders the formation of vitamin D3 itself. Vitamin D3 can also be convert to nonactive forms.
The absolute percent of turn 25OHD that arises native cutaneous synthetic versus oral intake the vitamin D in the free-living phibìc American populace cannot be plainly specified. Individuals living in ~ Earth"s poles throughout winter months and submariner crew members with very limited or no measurable UVB exposure have actually detectable level of 25OHD in blood, emerging from diet sources and also likely from previously synthesized and stored vitamin D. This topic is further explored in the section below that focuses on serum 25OHD.
Absorption
Owing come its fat-soluble nature, dietary vitamin D (either D2 or D3) is took in with other dietary fats in the small intestine (Haddad et al., 1993; Holick, 1995). The effective absorption that vitamin D is dependent top top the visibility of fat in the lumen, which triggers the relax of bile acids and also pancreatic lipase (Weber, 1981, 1983). In turn, bile acids initiate the emulsification of lipids, pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes the triglycerides into monoglycerides and complimentary fatty acids, and bile acids assistance the development of lipid-containing micelles, i m sorry diffuse right into enterocytes. At an early stage studies demonstrated the radiolabeled vitamin D3 appeared virtually exclusively in the lymphatics and in the chylomicron portion of plasma; as well, topics with impaired bile acid release or pancreatic insufficiency both demonstrated substantially reduced absorb of vitamin D (Thompson et al., 1966; Blomstrand and Forsgren, 1967; Compston et al., 1981). Subsequently, other clinical and also experimental pet studies confirmed that vitamin D is many efficiently soaked up when spend with foodstuffs containing fat (Weber, 1981; Johnson et al., 2005; Mulligan and also Licata, 2010) and, conversely, the a weight-loss agent that blocks fat absorption additionally impairs the absorb of vitamin D (James et al., 1997; McDuffie et al., 2002). The optimal lot of fat forced for maximal absorb of vitamin D has not been determined.
Within the minister wall, vitamin D, cholesterol, triglycerides, lipoproteins, and other lipids room packaged together right into chylomicrons. Importantly, if a fraction of newly absorbed intestinal vitamin D is also transported along with amino acids and carbohydrates into the portal system to reach the liver directly, the key pathway the vitamin D uptake is incorporation into chylomicrons the reach the systemic circulation via the lymphatics. Chylomicron lipids space metabolized in peripheral tissues that express lipoprotein lipase, but particularly in adipose tissue and also skeletal muscle, which room rich in this enzyme. During hydrolysis of the chylomicron triglycerides, a portion of the vitamin D contained in the chylomicron can be taken increase by these tissues. Uptake into adipose tissue and skeletal muscle accounts for the quick postprandial disappearance of vitamin D native plasma and probably likewise explains why raised adiposity causes sequestering that vitamin D and also is associated with reduced 25OHD levels (Jones, 2008). What continues to be of the initial chylomicron ~ lipolysis is a chylomicron remnant, a cholesterol-enriched, triglyceride-depleted particle that still contains a portion of that is vitamin D content.
Metabolism to the active Hormonal Form
Vitamin D, regardless of origin, is an inactive prohormone and also must first be metabolized come its hormonal kind before it deserve to function. When vitamin D start the circulation indigenous the skin or native the lymph, that is cleared by the liver or storage tissues in ~ a couple of hours. The procedures that monitor are illustrated in number 3-3. Vitamin D is convert in the liver to 25OHD, a procedure carried out by a CYP enzyme that has yet to be completely defined but is likely CYP2R1 (Cheng et al., 2003). The crystal structure of CYP2R1 has actually been established with vitamin D in the energetic site, and also the enzyme has actually been shown to metabolize both vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 equally effectively (Strushkevich et al., 2008). Over there is little, if any, feedback regulation the this enzyme. A large genome-wide association research of determinants that might be factors of the circulating 25OHD levels determined the human chromosomal 11p15 locus of CYP2R1 together a far-reaching determinant, conversely, the loci that the other enzymes purported to have actually 25-hydroxylase activity (e.g., CYP27A1 and also CYP3A4) to be not established (Wang et al., 2010). The other determinants of serum 25OHD as well as CYP2R1 have actually been report to be DBP (also recognized as Gc protein), which has actually six common phenotypes (Laing and Cooke, 2005) and 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase and also CYP24A1. Enhancing intake the vitamin D outcomes in greater blood level of 25OHD, although probably not in a straight manner (Stamp et al., 1977; Clements et al., 1987).
FIGURE 3-3
The line of vitamin D3 from synthesis/intake to development of metabolites. The process is the very same for vitamin D2 as soon as it enters the circulation. NOTE: CYP = cytochrome P450 (a big and varied group of enzymes).
At this point, 25OHD bound to DBP circulates in the blood present and, once calcitriol is required as result of a lack of calcium (or absence of phosphate), 25OHD is 1α-hydroxylated in the kidney to type calcitriol, the energetic form, by the 1α-hydroxylase enzyme (also known as CYP27B1) (Tanaka and also DeLuca, 1983). This metabolic action is very tightly regulation by blood calcium and phosphate levels v PTH and the phosphaturic hormone, FGF23, and constitutes the basis of the vitamin D endocrine device that is central to maintaining calcium and phosphate homeostasis (see discussion listed below on functions and physiological actions). FGF23 plot by reduce the expression that renal sodium–phosphate transporters and also reducing serum calcitriol levels.
Production of the CYP27B1 enzyme is stimulated by PTH, i m sorry is secreted in an answer to a lack of calcium. The is additionally stimulated by the hypophosphatemic action of FGF23 on renal phosphate excretion, but to a lesser extent. Once PTH is suppressed, or FGF23, developed by osteocytes, is stimulated, 1α-hydroxylation is markedly diminished (Liu et al., 2007; Quarles, 2008). Furthermore, calcitriol have the right to act together a suppressor of CYP27B1, although the mechanism is not completely understood.
Calcitriol has its the strongest metabolic task in inducing that own damage by stimulating the 24-hydroxylase enzyme (now known as CYP24A1; number 3-1) (Jones et al., 1998). The enzyme CYP24A1 is found in every target tissues and is induced in response to calcitriol connecting with the VDR. CYP24A1 is largely responsible for the metabolic degradation of calcitriol and also its precursor, 25OHD, and its deletion in the mouse results in 50 percent lethality at weaning and also an inability to efficiently clear the active type of vitamin D (Masuda et al., 2005). CYP24A1 carries out a series of reactions resulting at some point in production of calcitroic acid from calcitriol and also 1-desoxycalcitroic mountain from 24,25(OH)2D, the significant metabolite the 25OHD. These commodities are excreted with the bile into the feces (Jones et al., 1998); very small is eliminated through the pee (Kumar et al., 1976). The energetic forms that vitamin D2 are additionally catabolized by CYP24A1 into a series of biliary metabolites, somewhat analogous to those the vitamin D3.
As explained above, all naturally arising vitamin D compounds interact with DBP. Calcitriol and vitamin D have considerably lower affinity for this protein than does 25OHD. Conversely, vitamin D has actually an average lifetime in the body of roughly 2 months, 25OHD has actually a lifetime of 15 days, and calcitriol has actually a lifetime measured in hrs (Jones et al., 1998). Aside from these an essential elements in vitamin D metabolism, more than 30 various other metabolites have been found, including the 3-epi series of vitamin D compound (DeLuca and Schnoes, 1983; Siu-Caldera et al., 1999). Their prominence seems minimal and also need not be discussed here.
Although the path of catabolism in between 1α,25(OH)2D2 and also 1α,25(OH)2D3 differs beyond the early 24-hydroxylation step, since 24-hydroxylation is mostly a deactivation step (Brommage and DeLuca, 1985; Horst et al., 1986; Lohnes and also Jones, 1992; Jones et al., 1998), the rate of this initial step must be the important indicator of the lose of organic action. To compare of initial price kinetics that the 24-hydroxylase enzyme (CYP24A1) task toward 1α,25(OH)2D2 and 1α,25(OH)2D3 and their precursors indicate that the prices of inactivation by CYP24A1 in vitro are virtually similar (Jones et al., 2009; Urushino et al., 2009). Back side-chain hydroxylation that 1α,25(OH)2D2 represents the major route of management in the target cell, clearance the the metabolic assets in vivo is facility by extr non-specific liver CYPs (e.g., CYP3A4) (Gupta et al., 2004, 2005) that space inducible by 1α,25(OH)2D3 in certain extra-hepatic organization (Thompson et al., 2002) and likewise Phase II enzymes, including uridine diphosphate-glucuronosyl transferases, which are well-known to topic vitamin D metabolites to glucuronidation (LeVan et al., 1981; Hashizume et al., 2008). The pharmacokinetic repercussion of the amount of this catabolic systems, as presented in studies in rats, is a slightly lessened half-life for 1α,25(OH)2D2 compared with 1α,25(OH)2D3 (Knutson et al., 1997).
See more: When Atp Loses A Phosphate, Energy Is Released And Is Formed.
There space reports the vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 room differentially vulnerable to these non-specific inactivating modifications, such together those developing in the liver in an answer to a range of drugs. These enzymes include the liver and intestinal CYPs that are well-known to metabolize vitamin D compounds differently, such as CYP27A1, i beg your pardon 25-hydroxylates vitamin D3 and 24-hydroxylates vitamin D2 (Guo et al., 1993), and also CYP3A4, i m sorry 24- and also 25-hydroxylates vitamin D2 substrates an ext efficiently than vitamin D3 substrates (Gupta et al., 2004, 2005) and also 23R- and also 24S-hydroxylates 1α,25(OH)2D3 (Xu et al., 2006); the last enzyme has recently been presented to be selectively induced by 1α,25(OH)2D in the intestine (Thompson et al., 2002; Xu et al., 2006). Both CYP27A1 and CYP3A4 are recognized to have significantly lower Michaelis-Menten constants (Km values) because that 25OHD3 contrasted with CYP2R1 (Guo et al., 1993; Sawada et al., 2000), in the micromole every liter range; this concerns their physiological but not your pharmacological relevance. Recent job-related (Helvig et al., 2008; Jones et al., 2009) has presented that both human being intestinal microsomes and also recombinant CYP3A4 protein breakdown 1α,25(OH)2D2 in ~ a considerably faster rate than 1α,25(OH)2D3, saying that this non-specific CYP can limit vitamin D2 activity preferentially in target cells, wherein it is expressed and also when the substrate is in the pharmacological sheep range. The same form of mechanism entailing differential induction that non-specific CYPs might underlie the sometimes reports the co-administered drug classes, such as anti-convulsants (Christiansen et al., 1975; Tjellesen et al., 1985; Hosseinpour et al., 2007), causing accelerated degradation of one vitamin D form over the other.